Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Chemistry

West Bengal, India. Abstracts The modern				different procedures depending on the character
chemistry is based on the findings and thinking of				and form of the chemical treatment and the
the people of historical age. If no one knows the				substance chosen for this purpose; the substance
base and work of the previous on a subject, he				being called the 'Noble Stone' or 'Philosopher's
or she could mere develop a new thought or				Stone'. This may be excrements, or blood, or hair,
findings. For, a civilization must know its past.				or eggs, or anything else. After the substance has
Hence, the present work is a small effort to find				been specified, it is treated along certain lines
out the contribution of ancient Arabian and				mentioned in their books. The result is an earthen
Egyptian scientists in the field of Chemistry.				or fluid substance which is called Elixir. These
Different scientists of different school of thought,				chemists think that if Elixir is added to silver which
correlating different streams of science being				has been heated in a fire, the silver turns into
Chemistry as a main subject, are described in the				gold. If added to copper which had been heated in
present work. Chemistry deals with the				a fire, the copper turns into silver. The question
composition and properties of substances and the				arises whether the metals are of specific
changes of composition they undergo. It has been				differences, each constituting a distinct species, or
divided into Inorganic and Organic. The conception				whether they differ in certain properties and
of this in modern Chemistry came from				qualities and constitute different kinds of one and
al-RÃƒÂ£zi's classification of chemical				the same species? AbÃƒÂ¼ Nasr
substances into mineral, vegetable and animal.				al-FÃƒÂ¤rabi and his followers held the
Inorganic Chemistry, deals with the preparation				opinion that the difference in metals is caused by
and properties of the elements, and their				certain conditions such as humidity and dryness,
compounds, originally arose from the study of				softness and hardness, and colours such as
minerals and metals, whereas Organic Chemistry,				yellow, white and black. According to him the
which deals with carbon compounds, developed				metals are different kinds of one and the same
through the investigation of animal and plant				species. On the other hand, Ibn Sina and his
products. Prior to 1828 it was not possible to				followers believed that metals have specific
synthesize organic substances from their				differences and belong to different species, each
elements and, therefore, it was supposed that				of which has its own differential and genus, like all
there existed fundamental difference between				other species. According to AbÃƒÂ¼
Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. In 1828 F.				Nasr al-FÃƒÂ¤rÃƒÂ£bi, it is
Wohler synthetically prepared urea, an organic				possible to transform one metal into another,
substance; thereby revealing that there was no				because it is possible to change their conditions.
fundamental difference between these two				"Ibn SinÃƒ thought that such transformation
branches of Chemistry. Since carbon compounds				was impossible. His assumption is based on the
were numerous, their study separately made				fact that specific differences in metals cannot be
under Organic Chemistry, and study of elements				changed by artificial means. He believed that since
and non-carbon compounds included in Inorganic				the metals are created by the Creator and
Chemistry'. (1) The earliest discoveries in Inorganic				Determiner of things, God Almighty, and the
Chemistry were made in metallurgy, Materia				mystery of their real character was utterly
Medica, painting, enameling, glazing, glass-making,				unknown and could not be perceived, any
arts, etc. These arts, and many metals,				attempt for transformation would be
compounds and alloys were known to the Arabs.				meaningless". (18) Ancient Arabs' art of
Similarly, the discoveries in Organic Chemistry				transformation of metals was based upon
were made in the arts of dyeing, tanning, the				Hellenistic and Iranian traditions, but apparently the
manufacture of paper, in the study of fats, both				main principles and the main operations were
of plant and animal origin, in medicine, etc. Thus				already established long before the 12th century.
Chemistry had its sources in photo techniques,				Before this century the Arabs had not only made
mineralogy, metallurgy, Materia Medica and				many experiments, and produced several works
decorative arts. It is the product of transmutation				on this art, but they had begun to doubt and
of baser metals into gold and philosophical				criticise the most advanced theories concerning it.
thoughts of practical or theoretical interest. Finally,				This proves that the standard of their chemical
it is the result of the study of the properties of				thinking was advanced. The 12th and 13th
the substances. A Greek philosopher, Empedocles,				centuries added very little to their knowledge
held the view that all the four elements, air,				about the transformation of metals, but their
water, earth and fire, were the primal elements,				research continued in various fields. The main
and that the various substances were made by				chemical writer of this age was
their intermixing. He regarded them to be distinct				Abu'l-QÃƒÂ£sim Muhammad al-Iraqi who
and unchangeable. Aristotle considered these				flourished in the second half of the 13th century.
elements to be changeable i.e., one kind of matter				He was an experimenter and a theorist. His works
could be changed into another kind. (2)				represent the full development of the Arabic
JÃƒÂ¡bir ibn HayyÃƒÂ£n				doctrine. (19) The 14th century was an
(Liatinized as Geber), a great Arabian Chemist of				enlightened period when a group of intelligent
the 8th century A.C., modified the Aristotelian				writers began to reject the idea of
doctrine of the four elements, and presented the				transformation of metals by chemical means. One
so-called sulphur-mercury theory of metals.				of such person was a historian, Rashid al-Din who
According to this theory metals differ essentially				described such chemical practice in Mongol Persia
because of different proportions of sulphur and				and expressed his distrust of such chemists. The
mercury in them. He also formulated the theory				large encyclopaedic work Nukhbat al-Dahr of
of geologic formation of metals. Unlike his Greek				al-Dimashqi contains, in part second, much
predecessors, he did not merely speculate, but				information on metal, their properties, and
performed experiments to reach certain				influences. (19) As usual in Arabic treatises,
conclusions. He recognized and stated the				chemistry is mixed up with mineralogy and
importance of experimentation in Chemistry. He				geology. (20) Even in their purely chemical
combined the theoretical knowledge of the				researches on transformation of metals, the Arab
Greeks and practical knowledge of the craftsmen,				chemists achieved by no means unimportant
and himself made noteworthy advance both in				results. In their efforts to discover Elixir they
the theory and practice of Chemistry.				often discovered new chemical processes, and hit
JÃƒÂ¢bir's contribution to Chemistry is				upon the catalytic properties of various
very great. He gave a scientific description of two				substances. The pains, which they took in the
principle operations of Chemistry. One of them is				search of gold, ultimately resulted in their great
calcinations which is employed in the extraction of				contribution to the development of modern
metals from their ores. The other is reduction				chemistry. The last important chemist of the 14th
which is employed in numerous chemical				century was 'Izz al-Din 'Ali Ibn al- Jildaki. Some
treatments. He improved upon the methods of				twenty treatises are ascribed to him. The list
evaporation, melting, distillation, sublimation and				shows al-Jildaki's great activity as a chemical
crystallization. These are the fundamental				writer. A complete study of his vast writings is
methods employed for the purification of chemical				necessary to know what he actually tried to
substances, enabling the chemist to study their				establish. To some extent, this study was made
properties and uses, and to prepare them. The				by Ruska, Stapleton, Holm yard, and their disciples.
process of distillation is particularly applied for				One of al-Jildaki's important books entitled
taking extract of plant material. In the opinion of				NihÃƒÂ¢yat al-Talab fi Sharh al-Muktasab
JÃƒ bir the cultivation of gold was not the				contains many quotations from the earlier works,
only object of a chemist. The preparation of new				and some novelties, as the use of nitric acid to
chemical substances was also regarded by him as				extract silver out of the gold-silver alloy. Al- Jildaki
the chief object of Chemistry. We owe to him				remarked that the substances do not react
for the first preparation of such substances as				except by definite weights. (21) This is one of the
arsenic and antimony from their sulphides, and				four fundamental laws of modern chemistry. The
basic lead carbonate. He also did important work in				ancient chemists applied their chemical knowledge
the preparation of steel, and the refinement of				to a large number of industrial arts. Only three
metals. JÃƒ bir also deals with such				such arts are mentioned here, which will enable
applications as the use of manganese dioxide in				the readers to estimate the extent of their
glass-making, varnishes to water-proof cloth and				knowledge of Applied Chemistry. Paper: Paper
protect iron use of iron pyrites for writing in gold				was invented by the Chinese who prepared it
and distillation of vinegar to concentrate acetic				from the cocoon of the silkworm. Some
acid. The most important discovery made by Jabir				specimens of Chinese paper extant date back to
was the preparation of sulphuric acid. The				the second century A.C. The first manufacture of
importance of this discovery can be realized by				the paper outside China occurred in Samarqand
the fact that in this modern age the extent of				(757). When Samarqand was captured by Arabs
the industrial progress of a country is mostly				the manufacture of paper spread over the whole
judged by the amount of. sulphuric acid consumed				Arab world including the Maghrib. (Tunis, Morocco,
in that country. Another important acid prepared				Algiers).
by him was nitric acid which he obtained by				By the end of the 12th century there were four
distilling a mixture of alum (of Yemen) and copper				hundred paper mills in Fasalone. In Spain the main
sulphate (of Cyprus). Then by dissolving				centre of manufacture of paper was Shatiba
ammonium chloride into this acid, he prepared				which remained a ancient Arab city until 1239.
aqua regia which, unlike acids, could dissolve gold in				Cordova was the centre of the business of paper
it. Jabir classified chemical substances, on the basis				in Spain. The Arabs developed this art. They
of some distinctive features, into bodies (gold,				prepared paper not only from silk, but also from
silver, etc.) and souls (mercury, sulphur, etc.) to				cotton, rags and wood.In the middle of the 10th
make the study of their properties easier.				century the paper industry was introduced in
JÃƒÂ£bir is the author of a large number				Spain. In Khurasan paper was made of linen.
of books on chemistry and a book on astrolabe.				There is an early treatise dealing with
About one hundred chemical works ascribed to				paper-making, the Umdat al-Kuttab wa 'Uddatu
him are extant. His fame chiefly rests on his				dhawi'l-AlbÃƒÂ£b which is ascribed to the
chemical books preserved in Arabic. (3) We find				Amir al- Mu'izz' Ibn Badis, a ruler of the Zayri
that the author recognized and stated clearly the				dynasty (1015-61) in Tunis. The 11th chapter of
importance of experimentation more clearly than				this treatise, dealing with paper, has been edited,
any other early chemist. He remarkably sound				translated and elaborately discussed by the
views on methods of chemical research. It is				foremost student of Arabic paper, Josef
impossible to reach definite conclusions regarding				Karabacek. This work explains how to prepare
the extent of his contributions until all the Arabic				the pulp, make the sheets, wash and clean them,
writings ascribed to him have been properly				colour, polish and paste them, and give them an
edited and studied. But on the basis of our				antique appearance. No text comparable to this in
present knowledge, Jabir appears to be one of				any other language of so early a date is known.
the greatest scientist whose influence can be				The preparation of pulp involves a large number
traced throughout the whole period of the				of complicated chemical processes, which shows
historical development of the Arabian and				the advancement of the chemical knowledge of
European chemistry. In the light of these facts it				the Arabs and Egyptians at that time. The
would not be improper to call JÃƒÂ£bir as				manufacture of writing-paper in Spain is one of
the father of Chemistry. Some of the chemical				the most beneficial contributions of Arabs to
writings to which JÃƒÂ£bir's name is				Europe. Without paper the scale on which popular
attached were translated into Latin. The first such				education in Europe developed would have not
version, the Book of the Composition of Alchemy				been possible. The preparation of paper from silk
was made by Robert of Chester in 1144. The				would have been impossible in Europe due to the
Kitab al-Sab'in (the book of the seventy) was				lack of silk production there. The Arabs method
translated by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th				of producing paper from cotton could only be
century'. The translation of the Sum of Perfection				useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of
was made by Richard Russell. One of his books				paper-making was established in Italy (1268-76).
has been translated into French by Berthelot. (4)				France owed its first paper mills to ancient Spain.
Several technical terms have passed from				From these countries the industry spread
JÃƒÂ£bir's Arabic writings through Latin				throughout Europe. Another type of paper;
into the European languages. Among these are				marbled paper, which was common upon
realgar (red sulphide of arsenic), tutia (zinc oxide),				end-papers, paper covers and edges of books,
alkali, antimony, and alembic for distillation Vessel.				was prepared in the East, and exported to the
The Arabic equivalents for the last three words				West. About the preparation of marbled paper
are alqali, ithmad, and al-'anbiq respectively. (5)				Roger Bacon tells us: "The Turks have a pretty
Before JÃƒÂ£bir Ibn Hayyan, the				art of chamoletting of paper, which is not with us
Umayyad prince Khalid Ibn Yazid, who was a				in use. They take diverse oiled colours, and put
philosopher, poet and chemist, encouraged Greek				them severally (in drops) upon water; and stirr
philosophers in Egypt to translate Greek scientific				the water lightly and then wet their paper (being
works into Arabic. These were among the earliest				of some thickness) with it, and the paper will be
translations in Arabic from other languages. He				waved, and veined, like Chamolet or Marble'.
was himself deeply interested in medicine,				Books bound in the West towards the end of the
astrology and chemistry. Many chemical works				16th century are found with end-papers brought
are ascribed to him. One of them is entitled				from the East, but it was not until about a
Firdaus al-Hikmah fi'Ilm al-Kimiya. This work was in				century later that European binders began to
verse, and contained 2,315 couplets. (6) An				make them themselves. Hand-made marbled
encyclopaedic scientist, and philosopher, Abu Yusuf				papers are now rarely used, but more or less
Ya'qub al-Kindi considered the art of				clumsily reproduced imitations still serve various
transformation of one metal into the other as an				purposes.
imposture. A few of 'his numerous works dealing				There is an Arabic word 'rizma' meaning a bundle
with many sciences are extant. One of his works				of merchandise, which had been adopted in
is on pharmacy, a branch of applied chemistry. (7)				almost every Western language with slight
Chemistry was usually mixed up with mineralogy				variations to mean a bundle of paper (English:
and geology. The oldest Arabian lapidary which				ream). This also testifies to the Arabic origin of
may serve as an important source of chemistry				that business in the West. (22) Tiles : The industry
was written by 'UtÃƒÂ¤rid Ibn				of tile-making which involves a large number of
Muhammad al-HÃƒÂ£sib who flourished in				complex technical and chemical processes, was
the ninth century. It deals with the properties of				highly developed by Arabs. The earliest treatise, a
precious stones. (8) In the same century				Persian text, dealing with the manufacture of
JÃƒÂ£bir's work was further advanced				faience, was unique of its kind in world literature
by al-RÃƒÂ¤zi who wrote many chemical				until the 16th century. It has been written by 'Abd
treatises, and described a number of chemical				Allah Ibn 'Ali KÃƒ shÃƒ ni in the 13th
instruments. One of his treatises consists of 25				century. This book entitled Jawahir
pieces of chemical apparatus. He made				al-'ArÃƒÂ£'is Wa Aja'ib
investigations on specific gravity. One of his				al-NafÃƒÂ¤'is was written on precious
important works is on the art of transformation				stones and perfumes. It explains the manufacture
of baser metals into the noble ones. He applied his				of Faience, the ingredients (as clay, borax,
chemical knowledge for medical purposes, thus				feldspar, cobalt, lapis lazuli, lead, manganese, tin
laying the foundation of Iatrochemistry. (9) Other				etc.), their mixtures, the kiln processes and
important chemists of this century were				implements, the methods of glazing and
Dhu'l-NÃƒÂ¼n and al-JÃƒ hiz. The				decorating. This treatise is similar to the various
former mostly dealt with the art of transmutation				other treatises on precious stones written in
of metals. (10) The latter prepared ammonia from				Arabic and Persian. The final chapter deals with
animal offals by dry distillation. (11) In the tenth				the art of enamelled pottery. This account is
century Ibn Wahshiyah wrote on chemistry, His				specially valuable because it is based on actual and
work may help to understand chemical symbolism.				traditional practice. The maker of the beautiful
Maslamah Ibn Ahmad, an astronomer,				lustre 'mihrab' (arch) of the tomb of Imam
mathematician and oculist of this century wrote				YahyÃƒÂ£ (now in the Hermitage,
two chemical works entitled, Rutbat al-Hakim and				Leningrad), dated 1305 A.C., Yusuf Ibn 'Ali Ibn
GhÃƒÂ£yat al-Hakim. The second is well				Muhammad, was possibly a brother of the author.
known in the Latin translation made in 1252 by				(23) Ceramics: The early history of Arabian and
the order of King Alfonso under the title Picatrix.				Egyptian ceramics has not so far been written.
(12) A Persian pharmacologist AbÃƒÂ¼				Many interesting specimens have been discovered
MansÃƒÂ¼r Muwaffaq Ibn 'Ali al-Harawi				in recent years which throw much light on the
who flourished in Herat in the tenth century, was				development of this industry in the Arab world.
apparently the first to think of compiling a treatise				The centers of this industry were situated in
on Materia Medica in Persian. He travelled				Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt and Valencia
extensively in Persia and India to obtain necessary				from where various types spread rapidly
information. He wrote, between 968 and 977, a				throughout the Islamic Caliphate. Under Arabian
book entitled Kitab al-Abniyah 'an				influence the potters in these Centers revived old
HaqÃƒÂ£'iq al-Adwiyah. It contains Greek,				technical processes, developed new ones and
Syrian, Arabian, Persian, and Indian knowledge. It				began to experiment with decorative and
deals with 585 remedies (of which 466 are				ornamental schemes. The Arabian potters readily
derived from plants, 75 from minerals, and 44				absorbed progressive ideas but at the same time
from animals). He classified them into four groups				maintained great originality. Two types of pottery
according to their action, and gave the outline of a				were in common use; enamelled and lustered. In
general pharmacological theory. Abu				enamelled pottery (the glazed earthenware) the
MansÃƒÂ¼r distinguished between				Ancient s, from an early period, were expert
sodium carbonate (natrum) and potassium				masters. In lustered pottery also they made
carbonate (qali). He had some knowledge of				great progress. "In this the design is painted in a
arsenious oxide, cupric oxide, silicic acid, antimony				metallic salt on a glazed surface and fixed by firing
and so on. He knew the toxicological effects of				in smike in a way that gives it a metallic gleam,
copper and lead compounds, the depilatory virtue				which varies in different specimens from a bright
of quicklime, the composition of plaster of Paris				copper-red to a greenish- yellow tint, and in some
and its surgical use. (13) The greatest Arabian				cases throws off brilliant iridescent reflections. (24)
surgeon, Khalaf Ibn 'AbbÃƒÂ¤s				In the last chapter of the Persian text Kitab
al-ZahrÃƒÂ£wi (d. 1013) wrote a great				al-JawÃƒÂ¤hir' al-'Ara'is Wa
medical encyclopaedia, al-Tasrif in 30 sections,				'AjÃƒÂ£'ib al-Nafa'is, the author describes
which contains interesting methods of preparing				the techniques of glazing with two fires (lustres),
drugs by sublimation and distillation, but its most				leaf building, over glaze decoration fired in a muffle
important part is the surgical one. (14)				kiln. (i.e., separated from the flame, the source of
AbÃƒÂ¼ Rayhan Muhammad				heat being outside), haf't rang, a Persian term
al-BirÃƒÂ¼ni (973-1048) took a great				referring to the seven colours of the planets.
interest in the determination of the specific				There may be a reference to the polychrome
gravity of eighteen precious stones and metals. A				over glaze technique, the so called minai ware
voluminous unedited lapidary by al- Biruni is extant				(another Persian term; mina-wash means lustre;
in unique manuscript in the Escorial Library. It				mina coloured). The author indicates differences
contains a description of a great number of				between the art as practiced in Kashan, Baghdad
stones and metals from the natural, commercial,				and Tabriz. In Baghdad and Tabriz other kinds of
and medical point of view. Moreover, he				firewood and potash were used. In the 15th
composed a pharmacology (saydalah).Important				century the Arabian ceramic art was followed by
information could certainly be obtained from his				Italian potters, who obtained much of the mature
unedited works, on the origin of Indian and				technical knowledge from Arab sources. This
Chinese stones and drugs, which appeared in early				technical knowledge proved to be helpful in the
Arabic scientific works. (15) Ibn SinÃƒ wrote				revival of ceramic art during the Renaissance. (25)
a treatise on minerals, which was very important				REFERENCES :- 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica,
and one of the main sources of geological				chicago, 1951, p.360 2. Ibid., p. 355. 3 Sarton
knowledge, also a source of chemistry in Western				George, Introduction to the History of Science,
Europe until the Renaissance. As mentioned				Washington, 1950, Vol I. p. 532. 4. Wasiti, Hakim
before, mineralogy stood in close relation to				Nayyar, Tibb al-'Arab ( ÃƒÂ£n Urdu
chemistry. Nearly fifty Arabic lapidaries have been				Translation of Arabian Medicine by Edward G.
named. The best known of them is. the 'Flowers				Browne), Lahore, 1954, p. 26. 5. Ibid. 6.
of Knowledge of Stones', by ShihÃƒ b al-Din				HÃƒÂ£ji Khalifah, Kashf
al-TifÃƒÂ£shi (died in Cairo in 1154). It				al-ZunÃƒÂ¼n, Istanbul, 1943. Vol., I, p.
gives in 25 chapters extensive information on the				1254. Al-Zirakli, Khair al-Din, Al-'AlÃƒÂ£m
subject of the same number of precious stones,				vol. II p. 342. 7. Sarton, op. cit., p. 559. 8. Ibid., p.
their origin, geography, examination, purity, price,				572. Al-Qifti, op. cit. p. 251. 9. Ibid., p. 271. Sarton,
application for medicinal and magical purposes, and				op. cit. p. 609. 10. lbid, p. 592. 11. lbid, p. 597. 12.
so on. Except for Pliny and the superior				Ibid., pp. 620, 668. 13. Ibid., p. 678. 14. Ibid., p. 681.
Aristotelian lapidary, he quotes only Arabic				15 Ibid., p. 707. 16. Ibid, vol. II, part II, p. 650.
authors. (16)				17. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, English translation by
The output of the books on Chemistry was very				Frenz Rosenthal, London, 1957, vol. 3, p. 267. 18.
great after the eleventh century. Thus, there are				Ibid. p. 278 19. Haji. Khalifah, op. cit. p. 1936. 20.
known books of about forty Arabic and Persian				Sarton, op. cit vol. III, part I, p. 759. 21. Ibid. Vol. II,
chemists. Ibn Khaldun, (d. 1406) the talented				Part. II, p. 1045. 22. Sarton, op. cit., Vol. III, Part I,
Arabian philosopher of history and the greatest				p. 321. 23. Sarton, op. cit vol. III , part I, p. 756. 24.
intellect of his century, was a violent opponent of				Arnold and Guillaume, op. cit. p. 125. 25. Sarton,
the idea of transmutation of metals by chemical				George, Introduction to the History of Science,
means. (17) Some chemists thought that one				Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, Vol. I, p.
metal can be transformed into another by artificial				632.
methods. For such transformation they followed

Pfire Land

Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Chemistry

Articles

How Owning A...